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History was not a continuous increase in law over arbitrary will, but a periodic, fundamental reshaping of systems of sanctions and restraints, to cite one example. Liberal histories were populated by scientists and magicians, lawyers and tyrants, rational merchants and fanatical 61 Mode of Production, Mode of Information obscurantists all locked in a conflict that was traced to the dawn of time. The dialectic, on the contrary, revealed the inner transformation of both object and subject, without relying on fixed characters to perform the historical drama.

3 A New Kind of History If the Marxist concept of labor cannot serve as the organizing principle of historical research, the question of an alternative theory becomes urgent. In this chapter I delineate the main features of Foucault's theory of history and assess its merits as a new general framework for historians. In the past few decades the discipline of history has been revolutionized by new methodologies and new objects of study which fall under the rubric of 'social history'. Journals like the Annales in France and Past and Present in England have been the centers of the new concerns.

The slave-worker in that way derives a sense of his powers, a confidence that his subjectivity can be the basis for the order of the world. The worker apprehends the force of his intellect and this is the basis for his freedom. Things operate much the same way in Marx's texts. One can argue that the 'materialism' of the labor premise is deceiving, that it has rather a loud note of idealism, that Marx celebrates and analyzes not the grime of the body's activity but the power of the mind over it.

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